Apart from Caesars comments regarding there being four tribes with their own rulers in Cantiaci we know very little about the peoples living in the area during the years between the invasions of Caesar and Claudius.
(Caesar De Bello Gallico v.22) “… Cassivellaunus sent messages to Cantium, a country by the sea, as above set forth, over whose four districts Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus, and Segovax ruled as kings………”
In the book ‘The Cantiaci’, Alec Detsicas states that the Cantiaci area formed part of a larger region centred on the Thames and stretching as far north as the East Anglia Rivers, west to the Chiltern ridge and south to the High Weald of Kent and Sussex. In this area were five main tribal groups – the Catuvellauni, Cantiaci, Coritani, Iceni and Trinovantes.
We do not know the exact territories of these peoples — we can only plot these by looking at the distribution of coins issued by the individual rulers to ascertain their political influence and by archaeological fieldwork and interpretation.
When Caesar departed he had imposed terms on the British tribes – payment of tributes were fixed to ensure that the terms of the treaties were adhered to. In addition Cassivellaunus of the Catuvellaunian area was forbidden to molest the Trinovantes to his east.
Caesar tells us that hostages were given – current opinion is that these were not ‘hostages’ in the true sense but were future client kings / sons of kings who were willing to go to Rome and were then educated in the Roman way of life before returning to Britain.
This is given credence by the fact that Suetonius tells us the following in his De Vita Caesarum–Divus Augustus – The Lives of the Caesars–The Deified Augustus:
XLVIII. Except in a few instances he restored the kingdoms of which he gained possession by the right of conquest to those from whom he had taken them or joined them with other foreign nations. He also united the kings with whom he was in alliance by mutual ties, and was very ready to propose or favour intermarriages or friendships among them. He never failed to treat them all with consideration as integral parts of the empire, regularly appointing a guardian for such as were too young to rule or whose minds were affected, until they grew up or recovered; and he brought up the children of many of them and educated them with his own.
During the expansion of the Roman Empire it was normal practice for alliances to be formed with their neighbours and in some cases Roman troops being temporarily or permanently garrisoned in these neighbouring territories where Client Kings had been established.
Whilst we do not have any concrete evidence of this in Britain, some sites have been identified where the archaeological evidence could be interpreted as showing pre conquest occupation.
An example is what appears to be a small Roman Military fort at Gosbecks near Colchester where the rounded corners going under the Late Iron Age Heath Farm Dyke seems to suggest that the fort pre dates the dyke
Settlements
In the South East in particular there was a rapid development into urbanised civilisation – a number of the earlier Iron Age hill forts went into decline although some such as Bigbury, near Canterbury were re-defended. The Belgae from Northern France who had emigrated here from around 100BC mainly founded the peoples of the area – they tended to form political units, which had less need of forts. These hill-forts were replaced by the foundation of Oppidum sited on large areas of low lying ground (approx.75-100 acres), defined by linking of natural features and discontinuous great dykes.
They served a variety of functions – Oppidum are characterized by their mints and from foreign pottery finds which appear in abundance. The locations of these Oppidum were situated on the trade routes needed for distribution and marketing. The Oppidum were also centres for seats of government. However Oppidum still remain poorly understood and evidence is limited
Some of the settlements thought to be Oppidum in the South East can be identified as:
DVROVERNVM CANTIACORVM (Canterbury)
The pre-Roman settlement had an oppidum at this crossing place on the River Stour with direct access to the sea through the Stour Estuary. Belgic Rectangular huts and drainage gullies have been found on both sides of the River Stour
DVROBRIVAE (Rochester)
Pre-Roman native settlement on the Medway. Coin moulds have been found
QUARRY ROAD, Loose (near Maidstone)
Possible Belgic oppidum, Quarry Wood, Shepway, TQ 766 516 – controlled the crossing of the Medway
link to multimap arial photo of the area
Other main Oppidum in the larger area are:
VERULAMIUM (St Albans)
The Catuvellauni established a settlement centre and associated dykes on the plateau south of the River Ver. The earthworks can be seen in a simple form at Beech bottom dyke and Devils dyke.
CAMULODUNUM (Colchester)
The earthworks here enclose a territory of some 12 square miles and appear to run from river valley to river valley. The focal point of the site was a large farmstead within a trapezoidal shaped area in the Gosbecks area. To the north but also within the earthworks is the Sheepen area by the river which was a manufacturing area including a coin mint and workshops. Fragments on coin moulds have been recovered from the area.
Trade
The time between the Julian and Claudian invasions was a time of turmoil and unrest, which opened up new markets for trade particularly in Slaves.
In the Cantiaci region trade links with the Roman world had been in place since the 1st century BC using Gallo-Belgic coinage as well as the more locally produced potin coinage of North Kent.
The previous Atlantic route between the South East Coast at locations such as Hengistbury Head in Dorset with Southern Gaul and the Mediterranean was virtually replaced by the more direct route between Northern Gaul, the Mediterranean world and southeast England following the Veneti revolt in BC 56 when Caesar defeated the Veneti fleet.
Trade was expanding in this area – from the middle of the first century BC, Roman merchandise was steadily being brought into the region due to intensified contacts bringing about changes in the lifestyle of the Cantiaci inhabitants.
Imports consisted of amphorae, pottery fine wares from Gaul, Germany and the Mediterranean, glassware, bronze vessels and silver cups. The exports were more primitive consisting of basic raw materials and agricultural produce and show clearly the difference between an under-developed country and a more progressive one.
Amphorae
The alliance which was forged between Rome and the Trinovantes after Caesar appears to have also led to an increase in trade – Large numbers of Amphorae have been found on many sites in Hertfordshire and Essex as well as in other areas such as the oppidum at Bagendon near Chichester.
The amphorae contained wine as well as olives, nuts or other as products such as garum – a fish sauce which comes from the southern Spanish coastal region. The main types of Amphorae found in the South East are the Dressel 1B form – numerous kilns sites for the production of these have been found in Italy and the Richborough 527 type, which were probably made in the Eolie Islands off the coast of Sicily.
Politics and Power
There appears to be two distinctive dynasties in the South East – The Commian dynasty centred on the south and Tasciovanian in the east north of the Thames.
Commius had fled to Britain after the rebellion in Gaul where he had been involved in the rebel movement with Vercingetorix – from coins found in Sussex and Hampshire it appears likely that he established a kingdom in that area. These coins have ‘COMMIUS’ on them and are known as British Q coins. His son Tincommius may have had a formal treaty with Augustus. The earlier coins Tincommius produced were identical in style to those of Commius – these showed head and horse imagery. The coins he later produced in Sussex and Hampshire are more romanised in style.
His two brothers Eppilus and Verica plotted against Tincommius and he fled to Rome hoping to enlist the help of Augustus with no success.
In C AD 15 the younger brother Verica ousted Eppilus – Eppilus escaped to Kent where he also ejected the king Dubnovellaunos. Dubnovellaunos had been the first Cantiaci king to issue inscribed coins – mainly in a ‘Celtic’ style with ‘DVBNOVELLAV’ inscribed on them. These coins are found over a large area centred on oppidum at Durobrivae (modern day Rochester)
Tasciovanus may have been the son or grandson of Cassivellaunus and was the first Catuvellaunian leader to issue coins inscribed with his name and a mintmark from Verulamium. [VER c.20BC]
Tasciovanus started a period of expansion against the Trinovantes in direct contravention of the Treaty and coins bearing his name are found with the mintmark of CAMV (Camulodum) showing he had taken over the Trinovantes capital for a period before retreating.
On his death his son Cunobelin succeeded him. In AD9 the Romans suffered a massive disaster in the Tuetoberger Forest in Germany when three legions under Varus were massacred – Cunobelin possibly invaded the territory of the Trinovantes when it was unlikely that Augustus was in a position to retaliate.
Cunobelin is found minting coins in gold, silver and bronze, not from the Catuvellaunian capital at Verulamium but from Camulodunum.
This policy of expansionism continued with most of Kent and beyond the Thames into the Atrebate territory being dominated by Cunobelin. Despite this apparent hostility overseas trade continued to expand in this region. Cunobelin who reigned for nearly 30 years appears to have achieved such a position of power that he was described by Suetonius as ‘Rex Britannorum’ . He was obviously a great statesman and maintained a balanced kingdom, which he brought to a peak of Romanisation.
Cunobelin is thought to have died shortly before the AD 43 invasions – from coin evidence it seems his territory had already been divided between his sons, Adminius, Caratacus and Togodumnus. The political situation changed rapidly after Cunobelins death as both Caratacus and Togodumnus adopted a policy of hostility towards Rome.
Adminius who held pro-Roman views might have had his base on the extremity of North East Kent, which included the only, land locked harbour and the Wansum Channel. He was driven from Cantium by Cunobelin before his death and fled to Gauis who was campaigning in Germany.
Togodumnus took over his father’s kingdom and Caratacus began a calculated campaign of invasion to the lands of Verica and the Atrebates – Verica fled to Rome seeking the help of Claudius.
Matters had become out of hand – The southeast area had changed from being a region, which operated under a client kingship where Rome was the overlord.
This region had enjoyed the benefits and commerce of the Empire for a number of generations. Caratacus and Togodumnus had created political unrest and an unstable situation with no clear successor to Cunobelin. This threatened the trade which was inextricably linked to Rome
The forthcoming invasion may have been initially to secure the Catuvellauni territory rather than an invasion of Britain itself.
by Corinne Mills and Richard Hayton